Research conducted by Habiba Suleiman and Abdullahi Sani, Strategic Partnerships Department, Tropical General Investments Group.

ABSTRACT

The escalating impact of climate change, manifesting in droughts and flooding, poses a grave threat to the rice production process of smallholder farmers who are heavily reliant on rain-fed agriculture. This study evaluates the climate adaptation strategies employed by the WRL/USAID program for smallholder farmers in Kebbi State, Nigeria, with the aim of mitigating the effects of flood and drought resulting from climate change. Data collection involved questionnaires administered to program beneficiaries, Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) with stakeholders, and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with cooperatives, including women, youths, and cooperative heads. Secondary data were also extracted from the baseline report, annual reports, and endline report of the program. The data analysis followed a sequential mixed design. Quantitative data were first descriptively analyzed, followed by a thematic analysis of qualitative data. The results highlighted WRL/USAID’s adaptation strategies, encompassing irrigation farming, support for farm inputs (certified seeds, fertilizer, agro chemicals), advisory services, and training by field officers to enhance crop yield and establish market linkages for improved livelihoods. The program successfully raised the average yield per hectare of 7,621 smallholder farmers from 2.055 metric tons to 4.287 metric tons. However, challenges identified for smallholder rice farmers in the study area include inflation in the prices of farm inputs, increased fuel prices affecting frequency of watering due to fuel subsidy removal, and infestations of migratory birds (quelea) causing affected farmers to lose their entire harvest for a season. Recommendations include the provision of alternative energy sources for smallholder farmers engaged in irrigation farming. Solar energy systems can serve as an alternative, with governments collaborating at all levels with the private sector to offer subsidized systems to smallholder farmers. It was also recommend encouraging community water management strategies to ensure sustainable water supply, wider collaboration with government and development partners to address quelea bird incidents, aid farmers in mitigating the impact of climate change and ensure the sustainability of crop production. Additionally, insurance coverage must be introduced as a risk mitigation measure against multi-peril crop losses.

Keywords: Adaptation Strategies, Climate Change, Irrigation Farming, Smallholder farmers, WRL/USAID Program

1.1       Background to the Study

Rice stands as one of the fundamental staple crops widely consumed by half of the world’s population (Philips et al., 2023). It is considered as the third most significant source of calorie intake in sub-Saharan Africa. The demand for this crucial grain has witnessed exponential growth in the region, primarily driven by the surge in population. Over the years, this demand has increased from 9.2 million metric tons (Mt) in the early ’90s to a substantial 31.5 million Mt in 2018 (United States Department of Agriculture, 2018). Notably, only approximately 60% of domestic consumption is met through local production efforts (Arouna et al., 2021, as cited in Ibrahim, Saito, Bado & Wopereis, 2021).

Among the sub-Saharan countries, Nigeria emerges as a significant consumer of rice; however, its domestic production falls short of meeting the national demand. In response to this challenge, the Nigerian government has implemented various measures aimed at boosting rice production. These initiatives include providing subsidized loans to farmers through the Anchor Borrower’s Scheme, promoting local fertilizer blending, and imposing high tariffs on rice imports.

The cultivation of rice in Nigeria is predominantly carried out by smallholder farmers who constitute more than 80% of rice producers. These farmers primarily depend on rain-fed agriculture, with only a few engaging in dry-season cultivation. The average production of these farmers ranges from 2.0 to 3.0 Mt per hectare (USAID, 2020). Their reliance on rainfall renders them vulnerable to extreme weather events and climate change impacts such as pests and diseases, floods and droughts among others. In 2022 alone, flood-related incidents resulted in the complete or partial destruction of 945,000 hectares of farmland (NEMA, 2022). Additionally, a staggering 83.6% of Nigeria’s land area is categorized as drought-prone (UNDP Insurance and Risk Finance Facility, 2023).

Considering these circumstances, WACOT Rice Limited (WRL), in collaboration with the USAID-Funded West African Trade and Investment Hub (WATIH), initiated a rice out-grower project in four Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kebbi State, Nigeria. The primary objective of this project was to enhance the livelihoods of 5,143 smallholder farmers during the dry season, increasing their yield by 50% and fortify their resilience against the impacts of climate change. From 2021 to 2023, the Argungu Out-Grower Expansion Program (AOEP) was implemented to provide financial, technical, and mechanization support.

1.2       Statement of Problem

Kebbi State stands as Nigeria’s top rice producer, generating an impressive 3.56 million metric tons annually (Kebbi State Government, 2023) out of a national total production of 8.5 million metric tons. Domestic rice consumption stands at 7.8 million metric tons (United States Department of Agriculture – USDA, 2023). This significant output   relies on a combination of 2.0 million metric tons during the rainy season and 1.5 million metric tons during the dry season. However, climate change poses a serious threat to the state’s agricultural sector, particularly due to increasingly unpredictable rainfall patterns. This shifts often lead to droughts, floods, and irregular growing seasons, jeopardizing agricultural production (Olayemi et al., 2018). Climate change also adversely affects water availability, with direct consequences for crop yields.

The negative impacts of climate change are severe. A joint report by the National Agricultural Extension and Liaison Services and the National Emergency Management Agency (cited in the USDA, 2023), revealed that floods during the 2022/2023 farming season destroyed an estimated  $1.5 billion in agricultural investments, devastating  656,000 farms.

To address these challenges, Wacot Rice Limited (WRL), in collaboration with the USAID-funded West African Trade and Investment Hub (WATIH), expanded its rice out-grower project. The project aimed to integrate 5,143 additional dry-season smallholder farmers (SHFs) from four Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kebbi State into WRL’s existing outgrower program. The Argungu Out-Grower Expansion Program (AOEP) implemented from January 2021 to December 2023, provided vital financial, technical, and mechanization support. This support enabled access to quality agricultural inputs (certified seeds, agro-chemicals, and fertilizer), improved production technologies, capacity building, market access, and processing for smallholder farmers. This study assesses the project’s contribution to smallholder farmers’ climate change resilience, with a focus on determining its impact on their yield and livelihood.

1.3       Objectives of the Study

1. To examine the climate resilient technique adopted by WRL AOEP to enhance smallholder farmers’ adaptation to climate change impact.
2. To assess the impact of WRL AOEP climate resilience technique on the smallholder farmers’ yield and livelihood.
3. Assess the challenges faced by smallholder farmers in adapting to climate change.

1.4       Literature Review

Numerous studies have explored the climate adaptation strategies adopted by smallholder farmers in emerging rice-producing nations.  The work of Diagi, Edokpa, and Ajiere (2021) reviewed empirical studies on rice and climate change, revealing its significance in achieving food security in Nigeria. The study found that Nigerian farmers heavily relied on rain-fed agriculture, exposing them to adverse climate impacts such as flooding, drought, and severe heat, leading to soil degradation and reduced crop yields. It recommended sustainable agricultural practices, enhanced resilience strategies, and the consideration of climate-smart agricultural practices. These recommendations align well with the WRL business model, which involves training farmers in climate-smart and good agricultural practices.

Marsh et al. (2022), in their study  “Helping Feed the World with Rice Innovations: CGIAR Research Adoption and Socioeconomic Impact on Farmers using Impact Assessment of 17 studies,”  investigated the impact of factors on farmers such as agronomic practices, institutional arrangements, stress-tolerant varieties, communication technologies, and post-harvest technologies. The study found a substantial uptake of stress-tolerant rice varieties in Asia and Africa, leading to a significant increase in yield and income for farmers across the regions. The study emphasized the importance of continued efforts to promote stress-tolerant rice varieties and implement effective agronomic practices. It also recommended further studies on training programs and resource management practices to support smallholder rice farmers.

Firdaus, Tan, Rahmat, and Gunaratne (2020) conducted a review on climate change impacts on paddy, rice, and food security in Malaysia. They used Mann-Kendall and Sen’s slope methods to analyze temperature trends in granary areas, supported by a literature review. The study revealed a significant increase in both minimum and maximum temperatures, posing a severe threat to paddy production and negatively affecting food security.

In the study by Ariom et al. (2022), which conducted a systematic review of studies on the impact of Climate-Smart Agriculture strategies in African countries on smallholder farmers, it was found that CSA practices are categorized into agricultural practices, restoration practices of degraded lands, forest and cropland regeneration practices, practices in the livestock sub-sector, and water resources, along with the use of weather and climate information services. The adoption of CSA practices is influenced by government financial support, policy legislation, access to climate information, and farmers’ intellectual capacity.

Mfitumukiza, Mwesigwa, Kayendeke, and Muwanika (2024), in their study on local context capacity building needs for climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers in Uganda using semi-structured questionnaires, revealed that most smallholder farmers in the study area required capacity building intervention on soil-water conservation to adapt to drought and unpredictable rainfall.

Sudomo, et al. (2023) assessed contribution of Agroforestry to Food and Livelihood Security for Indonesia’s Smallholders in the Climate Change Era using literature review to analyze smallholder agroforestry practices in Indonesia, with categorization of the practices into non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and timber. It also assesses the predominant livelihood prospects of different agroforestry systems and investigates the impact of commercialization on biodiversity and environmental services. The findings reveal diverse agroforestry systems in Indonesia, with 88% focusing on NTFPs and 12% on timber. While 42% prioritize direct food supply, 58% emphasize income generation through product sales. Agroforestry is shown to support both food needs (46–61%) and income (51–54%) for smallholders, surpassing traditional agriculture (13%). The majority of agroforestry practices are semi-commercial (57%), providing a midpoint for achieving multifunctional agriculture. However, purely commercial agroforestry focusing on high-value commodities has a negative impact on biodiversity, leading to a decrease in environmental services for climate change mitigation and adaptation. The study highlights the importance of policy support and incentives to encourage smallholders to practice complex agroforestry for climate adaptation and mitigation while maintaining biodiversity and environmental services.

In the study of Kasu (2023) on the impact of deforestation on climate change in Ethiopia it was stated that the demand for farmland, fuel wood, and charcoal production has led to rapid depletion of forest leading to negative consequences as degradation of soils, loss of biodiversity, disruption of hydrological cycles, desertification, climate change, economic loss and social conflicts. It suggested that mitigation measures are required to save the environment by providing alternative energy sources, natural forests conservation, plantations, and regeneration of abandoned agricultural fields. In this regard, WRL has promoted agroforestry in the farming communities by distributing economic trees to farmers for planting in their farmlands as well as training of women on alternative source of energy to reduce deforestation and its impact on climate change.

Another factor of climate change impacting on smallholder farmers productivity is quelea bird (red-billed). Ambayeba (2018) observed that migrant birds play a major role in reducing crop productivity in the African region. Quelea birds are mostly found in Southern African countries. Their migrations pattern is determined by weather pattern and vegetation, as they feed on grass seed, it suddenly disappeared at the start of the rainy season due to seeds germination. The birds are then forced to move out of the early rain areas and to other areas in search of fresh seeds. They come back to their dry season quarters during mid or late season. Recently, their movement pattern has changed due to changing weather pattern resulting in the birds traveling to different parts of African countries (including Nigeria) in search of food.

This study differs from previous researches for its emphasis on irrigation farming for outgrower farmers, agri-financing, and extension services provided to smallholder farmers as climate adaptation strategies to enhance their yield and promote sustainable farming. Additionally, it utilizes primary and secondary data to triangulate results from various sources.

1.5       Methodology

1.5.1    Study Area and Location

The study is conducted in Kebbi State, Nigeria, situated in the North-West geopolitical zone of the country. The state is located between latitudes 10° 8′ N -13° 15′ N and longitudes 3° 30′ E -6° 02′ E. With a total population of 3,238,628 in 2006 and an area of about 36,229 square kilometers (Jirgi et al., 2016), agriculture serves as the primary occupation for over two-thirds of the population, focusing on crops such as rice, millet, sorghum, groundnut, and onions. The study specifically targets Argungu, Augie, Dandi, and Suru Local Government Areas, which are the areas covered by the Argungu Out-Grower Expansion Program (AOEP).

1.5.2    Research Design

The research adopted a sequential mixed design, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Secondary data were collected from baseline reports, milestone reports, and quarterly reports for the years 2021, 2022, and 2023, respectively. Primary data were generated from 354 respondents distributed across the four local government areas benefiting from the Argungu Out-Grower Expansion Program (AOEP). A multi-stage sampling technique was employed in drawing a sample from the total population of 7,621 project beneficiaries. The collected data from the respondents were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools.

Primary data collection methods for the study included 4 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), 4 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) (with 2 women groups, youth groups with age between 18 – 29 years, and cooperative heads), and questionnaires. Additionally, secondary sources such as the AOEP Baseline report, milestone reports, project quarterly reports, and annual yield, costs, and income surveys for the years 2021, 2022, and 2023 were utilized.

1.6       Results and Discussions

AOEP Farmers’ Demography 

The results of the data collected from various sources were analyzed concurrently. The demographic data of interest for this research include sex, age, marital status, and educational level of the smallholder farmers under the AOEP. These data are presented in Table 1.1 below.

As indicated in the table above, rice production in Kebbi State is predominantly carried out by males, accounting for 80.79%, while women constitute only 19.21%. This further reveals an improvement in women’s inclusion in the Wacot Rice Limited/West African Trade and Investment Hub (WRL/WATIH) program compared to the baseline data, where only 0.97% of women were involved in rice farming. The study also analyzed farmers’ experiences regarding access to climate change impact mitigation and adaptation measures across genders. It can be observed that most of the respondents, representing 92.94%, were married, with 5.93% being single, and 1.13% widowed. This implies that the project aims to impact the livelihoods of individuals with diverse family structures.

Regarding the educational level of the farmers, it was revealed that 64.97% of respondents had only Qur’anic education, 14.97% had completed secondary school, 9.04% had obtained tertiary education, and 11.02% had completed primary school. This implies that all the respondents have received either formal or informal education.

On ownership and access to land, 86% of the dry season rice farmers in Kebbi State owned their land, while 14% rented. This suggests that farmers can be encouraged to engage in dry season farming, which increases soil moisture and nutrients across seasons. The average farm size mapped during the farmer registration exercise for all the respondents of the survey was 1.52 hectares, with the average farm size being 1.47 hectares for youth respondents and 1.22 hectares for women farmers. FGDs with women groups revealed that some inherit their farms, some rent, and some purchase. Generally, findings from the study show that about 54% of women obtained their lands through inheritance, 23% through renting, and 23% through purchasing. On average, most of their farms are usually one hectare.

Results from the KIIs and FGDs also revealed that dry season rice farming is a male-dominated economic activity among rural people. It also provides the researcher with an opportunity to assess the level of access to climate change adaptation intervention measures by different categories of farmers with varying levels of education. On this note, Ambani and Percy (2014) found a significant variance in access to climate information based on the literacy level of farmers.

AOEP Capacity Building

Respondents were asked to provide responses on their access to training prior to the AOEP program to aid in assessing the impact of the intervention on the capacity building of smallholder farmers in climate adaptation through Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Yield Enhancement Techniques (YET). Diagi, Edokpa, and Ajiere (2021) recommend training farmers in climate-smart agriculture to adapt to the impacts of climate change.

To assess the impact of the capacity-building efforts of the AOEP on smallholder farmers’ resilience to climate change, farmers were asked to confirm or decline whether they had attended any training on rice cultivation. 23% of the respondents indicated that they had previously attended training on rice cultivation before the AOEP, while 77% of the respondents indicated that they had not attended any training on rice cultivation before the AOEP. This implies an improvement of about 70% from the baseline data, as farmers are now provided with training on Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), Yield Enhancement Techniques (YET), and other agronomic practices to prevent food loss and maximize yield. The training encompassed both theoretical and practical demonstrations on the WRL demonstration plots to ensure that farmers fully understood and could apply the knowledge imparted to them.

On the other hand, a Key Informant (KI) stated, “I had more than 10 hectares of land and was doing very well for myself and my family till the flood of 2020 that washed away my farms, and those farms have been lost. Since losing substantial acres of my land, things became harder for myself and my family. The GAP training administered by the program has been very useful to me. The most prominent one is transplanting, which I can see is better than the previous method I used in the wet season.” Another farmer also stated, “One thing that I am very happy about is the regular monitoring of my farms by WRL extension workers, and this has helped me and other farmers in this project to resolve some of the challenges we have and improved our knowledge on modern farming.”

The training provided by WRL field officers, as described by farmers, covers various aspects, including the planning and management of nursery beds, transplanting, fertilizer application, weeding, water management, post-harvest management, and storage. This has helped them mitigate the impact of climate change, which predominantly affects rain-fed agriculture. This aligns with the findings of Mfitumukiza, Mwesigwa, Kayendeke, and Muwanika (2024) on the need for capacity building of smallholder farmers on water management in adapting to extreme weather events such as drought and unpredictable rainfall.

Agroforestry

In recogition of the growing impact of climate change on agricultural cultivation, WRL developed and implemented an agro-forestry initiative, which served to educate farmers on climate change and create more awareness amongst rural communities. The initiative also distributed a total of 3,288 tree seedlings to 1,644 farmers within the program to plant on their rice farms thereby increasing carbon (C₂) sequestration.

AOEP Agri-Inputs & Mechanization Support

To enhance their resilience to climate impacts, farmers were provided with farm inputs through their cooperatives, with the understanding that they would repay with their farm produce based on a predetermined mutual agreement between the WRL/USAID program and the beneficiaries.

Respondents were asked whether they had been able to access agricultural inputs and mechanization services from sources other than AOEP intervention. 22.88% of respondents indicated that they had previously accessed agricultural inputs and/or mechanization services from other sources before the AOEP. Conversely, 77.12% indicated that access to WRL farm inputs and mechanization services was their first opportunity to obtain quality fertilizer (NPK and Urea), insecticides, pesticides, and herbicides. WRL provided female farmers with irrigation equipment and offered all farmers mechanized threshing services at harvest to minimize post-harvest losses due to poor handling techniques.

FGD participants stated that each farmer received fertilizers (4 bags of NPK and 3 bags of Urea), pre-emergence herbicides (Glyphosate), pesticides (Sharpshooter), and training on improved farming practices from WRL. A farmer stated that he also received certified seeds. Participants were happy with the agri-inputs provided to them by WRL, for the price is much lower than the open market and of the best quality. A key informant stated that “AOEP has helped me get a new revenue stream with commercial farming. I was able to acquire 1 hectare of land through the community head, and the program provided me with agri-inputs and a pumping machine, enabling me to begin farming rice without any capital. With the additional income from rice farming, I have been able to fix my grinding machine and settle all of my debts.” This finding affirms the work of Ali, et al. (2021), which revealed that the quantity and quality of farm inputs and extension service contacts have a significant impact on rice production.

Effect of the WRL/USAID program on Farmers’ Yield

To assess the impact of the intervention, data on the annual yield of the beneficiaries were collected, and a comparison was made against the baseline data.

The average yield per farmer stood at 2.055 MT at the baseline assessment, while the average yield per farmer over the course of project implementation (2021 – 2023) stands at 4.287 MT per farmer. Female farmers recorded a significant increase in yield over the course of the project, harvesting an average of 4.054 MT from the previous 1.084 MT recorded at the baseline before implementation. Youth farmers previously recorded a yield of 2.095 MT at baseline and 3.574 MT on average over the 3 years of the project’s implementation. This indicates a significant increase of 108% for all farmers, and a 70.8% increment in yield for youth farmers, while female farmers recorded the greatest increase in yield by an additional 213%.

Effect of the WRL/USAID program on Smallholder Farmers’ Livelihood

In assessing the impact of the intervention on farmers’ livelihoods, the target of the program was measured against the actual outcomes. This evaluation aims to demonstrate the level of success or otherwise of the climate adaptation strategies adopted by WRL/USAID for smallholder rice farmers in Kebbi State, facilitating potential scalability in other settings.

Table 1.2 above reveals that WRL AOEP has surpassed its target of providing capacity building on good agronomic practices and yield enhancement techniques to 4,372 smallholder farmers, achieving 74.31% and thereby increasing their capacity to adapt to the impacts of climate change. The table also shows that the program has achieved an excellent result, surpassing its target by 104.78%, in terms of increasing the number of hectares of land applying GAP for dry season farming. The results indicate that sustainable agricultural practices among the dry season farmers led to a rise in yields from 2.055 MT per farmer to 4.287 MT per farmer, representing a 108% increase. This was attributed to training on improved farming practices and the provision of access to agri-input loans and extension services to beneficiaries. This surpasses the national average of between 2.0 – 3.0 MT.

The program aimed to generate 2000 direct and indirect jobs, and the results showed that 7,714 jobs were created. In this context, jobs refer to the number of people engaged by the project, such as field officers, field supervisors, consultants, gender team members, agronomists, among others, for the implementation of the project. The indirect jobs include the wage labor engaged by the beneficiary farmers on the farm. This complies with the ILO’s definition of a job, where a person aged 15 and above works at least one hour a week for a wage. Through this chain, the program surpassed its target by 285.7%.

WRL has trained 400 women beneficiaries of the AOEP on briquette making to serve as alternative energy source to charcoal and firewood. Female farmers were trained on briquettes using rice byproduct (rice husks). This initiative created renewable briquette coals, which was utilized for cooking in homes and sold to community members for additional income.

Challenges Faced by Farmers

Smallholder farmers in Kebbi State under the AOEP are faced with challenges which impede their level of adaptation to climate impacts. The challenges revealed by the farmers include shortage of water for irrigation in some LGAs due to low rainfall, high fuel costs and fuel scarcity, coupled with inflation, affecting farming operations. Migratory birds attacked on rice farms affected farmers means of livelihood. Other challenges attributed to climate change are pest infestations, and flooding resulting in smallholder farmers losing their farm produce. Insecurity events, including kidnappings and insurgencies, negatively impacted agricultural activities, especially in communities bordering neighbouring Sokoto, Zamfara and Niger states.

1.7       Findings

The project’s commitment to improving agricultural management practices and technologies is reflected in the growing adoption of these practices by individuals in the agriculture program. Over the three-year implementation period, the number of individuals who have applied improved management practices has shown consistent growth. In 2021, 1,261 individuals adopted these practices, which increased to 3,151 in 2022 and reached 7,621 in 2023. Project monitoring reports showed that all 7,621 individuals applied at least one of the improved farming practices trained in.

A crucial aspect of the project’s impact is the expansion of improved management practices and technologies across agricultural land. The project began in 2021 with 1,261 hectares, which increased to 3,939 hectares in 2022 and further to 8,953 hectares by the end of the final year. The cumulative number of hectares stood at 8,953 hectares against target of 4,372. This outcome signifies that the project has contributed to sustainable land use. The adoption of improved practices on a growing number of hectares indicates responsible land management that can preserve natural resources while enhancing agricultural productivity.

WRL ensured that farmers participating in the program complied with the best practices in farm sitting, agricultural cultivation, waste management, water management, mechanized equipment use and maintenance. All measures and guidelines were in line with the Safe Use Action Plan (SUAP) developed, as well as the USAID Fertilizer Fact Sheet.

WRL AOEP has attained sustainable agricultural yields, increasing from 2.055 MT per farmer to 4.287 MT per farmer. This achievement is attributed to training on improved farming practices, providing access to agri-input loans, capacity building, yield enhancement techniques, climate smart practices, water management and extension services for beneficiaries. The resulting yield surpassed the national average of 2.0 to 3.0 MT.

WRL-AOEP has created 7714 new jobs, both on-farm (labourers engaged by beneficiary farmers on their farms) and off-farm (direct jobs for field officers, field supervisors, agronomics, M&E consultants, and gender officers), emphasizing the integration of gender diversity and empowerment of the youth.

Fuel inflation and scarcity have resulted in many farmers decreasing the frequency of irrigation, and in some extreme cases, abandoning their farms. At a certain point in Kebbi, a security policy prohibited the sale of fuel into storage containers, such as gallons, making it challenging for farmers to obtain the fuel necessary to power irrigation water pumps. The recent removal of petrol subsidies will further contribute to the production costs for smallholder farmers, ultimately reducing their watering frequency and yield.

Smallholder farmers have experienced Quelea bird attacks on their crops at both early and later stages of maturity. During the harvest period, there were significant incidents of Quelea bird attacks reported across multiple locations in Kebbi state, destroying over 70,000 hectares of rice farms. Farmers have employed traditional methods of bird control, such as scarecrows, drumming, putting up nets, and using polythene bags in the farmland to mitigate damage. In some instances, the attacks surpassed the efforts of the affected farmers, causing extensive crop damage. This further undermines the capacity of smallholder farmers to adapt to the impact of climate change.

In recent times, insecurity events, including kidnapping and extreme insurgencies, have adversely affected agricultural activities across Nigeria. Kebbi State, particularly in communities bordering neighbouring states like Sokoto, Zamfara and Niger, have witnessed notable cases of kidnapping thereby affecting farmer production.

To reduce carbon emissions and increase carbon sequestration, WRL promotes agroforestry among smallholder farmers, as well as trainings for women on biofuel briquette thereby reducing deforestation and providing additional source of income. On the factory, WRL utilizes rice husk collected from the processing activity to generate energy which powers the entire processing facility through a Captive Power Generation system. WRL also ensures that all other waste materials from processing activities are disposed of in an environmentally sound manner, preventing discharge into waterways or wetlands. Excess material is promptly removed from the processing site.

1.7.1    Critical Success Factors of the Project

• WRL’s participatory and community-led development approach to project implementation ensured active involvement of different stakeholders at various levels of the project.
• Free training provided on good agricultural practices and yield enhancement techniques, encompassed both theory and practical aspects using WRL demonstration plots.
• Beneficiaries received free routine extension and advisory services from trained agronomists which ensure timely feedback and proper application of knowledge acquired in Good Agricultural Practices and Yield Enhancement Techniques (GAP/YET).
• Smallholder farmers were supported with agri-inputs and mechanization, safeguarding them from substandard farm inputs and securing their output.
• A well-functioning monitoring, evaluation, and learning system ensured timely reporting and consistent monitoring of critical project activities.
• Deliberate efforts were made to adopt environmentally friendly production processes both at the factory and during paddy production processes on the field.
• WRL’s strong commitment to obtaining quality paddy for the factory to meet consumers’ demands for premium quality and food safety.
• Market linkage provided by WRL to smallholder farmers at premium price.
• WRL backward integration through the empowerment of smallholder farmers, job creation and livelihood enhancement.

1.8       Recommendations

Due to the significant impact recorded by the program within its target, the study recommends further collaborations with a broader range of stakeholders, including the government, development partners, and non-governmental organizations. This collaborative effort aims to scale the impact of the project to rice farming communities across the country that are confronted with climate impact and extreme weather events. Such collaboration has the potential to further enhance the income and livelihoods of smallholder farmers and contribute to overall food security in the country.

It is also imperative to enable access and financing for irrigation powered by alternative energy sources for smallholder farmers in light of higher fuel costs following the removal of the fuel subsidy and liberalisation of Nigeria’s foreign exchange policy. The government must encourage community water management strategies towards ensuring sustainable water supply. Solar energy systems present a viable alternative, and collaborative efforts between governments at all levels and development partners can facilitate the provision of subsidized systems to smallholder farmers.

The government could further adopt the community-led development approach which was a success factor for the AOEP in developing a database of eligible farmers for these subsidies and minimizing the risk of non-farmers subverting the subsidy. Additionally, farmers can explore the use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), utilizing field expertise to construct cost-effective systems that would be advantageous for smallholder farmers.

While WRL is currently consulting with experts to find efficient solutions to this issue, there is a need for broader collaboration with the government and development partners to address the incidence of quelea birds. This collaborative effort will assist farmers in mitigating the impact of climate change and ensuring the sustainability of crop production.

Another area of collaboration among various stakeholders and interests is carbon sequestration. Scaling up WRL agroforestry and briquette making will help reduce carbon emissions into the atmosphere, thereby mitigating the need for cutting down trees for firewood and charcoal.

Multi-peril insurance coverage is another mitigation measure against losses related to climate change impact. Access to this support must be encouraged for smallholders who are at risk of losing entire farmlands due to incidences of flooding and droughts.

Another risk mitigation strategy adopted by WRL is ensuring that all extension agents and farmers in insecurity-prone locations are invited to safer environments for activities such as input distribution, GAP trainings, harvest, and recovery as advised by the company’s security department. Farming activities were also restricted to safer areas following security intelligence reports. In addition, routine awareness of field officers on modern security tips should be encouraged for the sustainability of advisory services to farmers on climate adaptation strategies as they unfold. A multi-stakeholder security effort involving security agencies, states, local government authorities, and traditional leaders is required to safeguard farmers and their means of livelihood.  

In conclusion, the project has demonstrated remarkable success across various outcome and impact indicators, effectively addressing disparities identified in the baseline findings. It has consistently exceeded targets and positively impacted beneficiaries by enhancing adaptability of smallholder farmers to climate change impact. The project’s ability to attract private sector investment and leverage resources reflects its strategic approach to sustainable development.

REFERENCES

Ali, S.; Ghosh, B.C.; Osmani, A.G.; Hossain, E. and Fogarassy, C.(2021).  Farmers’ Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Reducing the Risk of Rice Production: Evidence from Rajshahi District in Bangladesh. Agronomy. 11(600).Pp 1 – 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030600

Ambani, M. and Percy, F. (2014). Facing uncertainty: the value of climate information for adaptation, risk reduction and resilience in Africa. CARE Learning Paper, Care International, Nairobi.

Ambayeba, M.K. (2018), Food Crop Production by Smallholder Farmers in Southern Africa: Challenges and Opportunities for Improvement. Retrieved: 13/3/2022, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128143834000013

Ariom, T. O.; Dimon, E.; Nambeye, E.; Diouf, N. S.; Adelusi, O. O.; Boudalia, S. (2022). Climate-Smart Agriculture in African Countries: A Review of Strategies and Impacts on Smallholder Farmers. Sustainability. 14(11370). Pp 1 – 32. 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811370

Arouna, A.; Fatognon, I.A.; Saito, K.; Futakuchi, K.; (2021). Moving toward rice self-sufficiency in sub-Saharan Africa by 2030: lessons learned from 10 years of the Coalition for African Rice Development. World Development Perspective. 21(100291), pp 1-15.

Diagi, B.E.;  Edokpa, D. O.;  and Ajiere, S. (2021). Rice and climate change: It’s significance towards achieving food security in Nigeria: A Review. Journal of Geographical Research. 4(01). Pp18- 27. https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jgr.

Firdaus, R. B. R.; Tan, M. L.; Rahmat, S. R.; Gunaratne, M. S. (2020). Paddy, rice and food security in Malaysia: A review of climate change impacts. Cogent Social Science. 6(1818373). Pp 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2020.1818373.

Ibrahim, A; Saito, K; Bado,V.B; & Wopereis, M.C.S; (2021). Thirty years of agronomy research for development in irrigated rice-based cropping systems in the West African Sahel: Achievements and perspectives. Field Crop Research. 266(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2021.108149

Jirgi, A.J.; Grove, B.; Jordan, H.; Viljoen, M.F.; and Nmadu, J.D. (2016). Risk attitude of monocrop and intercrop farmers in Kebbi State, Nigeria. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development.7(8). Pp 140 – 149.

Kasu, H.B. (2023). Impact of deforestation and climate change in Ethiopia. International Journal of Horticulture and Forestry Research, 4(1), pp.1-10.

Kebbi State Government, (2023). https://www.kebbistate.gov.ng/news/governor/kebbi-export-rice-output-hits-356m-metric-tonnes.

Mishra, A. K.; Pede, V. O.; Arouna, A.; Labarta, R.; Veettil, P. C.; Bhandari, H.; Laborte, A. G.; Balie, J.; Bouman, B. (2022). Helping feed the world with rice innovations: CGIAR research adoption and socioeconomic impact on farmers. Global Food Security. 33(100628). Pp 1-10. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9231551/pdf/main.pdf.

Mfitumukiza, D, Mwesigwa, G.Y;  Kayendeke, E.J; and Muwanika, V.B (2024). Local Context Capacity Building Needs for Climate Change Adaptation among Smallholder Farmers in Uganda: Policy and Practice Implications. Climate. 12(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12010010

National Agricultural Extension and Liaison Services and the National Emergency Management Agency, (2023)

National Emergency Management Agency Report, (2022).

Olayemi, F.F.; et al., (2018). Assessing the vulnerability of agriculture to climate change in Nigeria: A systematic review. Sustainability. 10(2). doi.10.3390/su10124722.

Philips, J.; Morat, A.D; Nalley, L.L.; Graterol, E.; Bonatti, M.; Pava, K.L.; Urioste, S.; & Yang,W. (2023). Understanding demand for broken rice and its potential food security implications in Colombia. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research. 15, pp 1 – 10.

Sudomo, A.; Leksono, B.; Tata, H.L.; Rahayu, A.A.D.; Umroni, A.; Rianawati, H.; Asmaliyah; Krisnawati; Setyayudi, A.; Utomo, M.M.B.; et al (2023). In their study on Can Agroforestry Contribute to Food and Livelihood Security for Indonesia’s Smallholders in the Climate Change Era?

UNDP Insurance and Risk Finance Facility, (2023)

United States Department of Agriculture – USDA, (2023). Grain and Feed Update Report.

United States Department of Agriculture, (2018)

USAID – Feed The Future: Guide to Rice Production in Northern Nigeria – https://www.iita.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Guide-to-Rice-Production-in-Northern-Nigeria.pdf

Wacot Rice Limited/WATIH-USAID AOEP Baseline Report (2021)

Wacot Rice Limited/WATIH-USAID AOEP Endline Assessment Surveys (2023)